Biofuels: benefits and risks for developing countries

Biofuels具有巨大的潜力，但最能以强大而连贯的发展政策来应对的挑战。S. Arungu-Olende。

全球的production of生物燃料正在稳定增长，并将继续这样做。生物燃料提供更大的能源安全性，减少greenhouse gases以及颗粒物，农村发育，更好的车辆性能以及对石油的需求减少。

但是，他们还提出了需要解决生物燃料在世界各地，尤其是非洲的广泛问题之前需要解决的紧迫问题。这些与土地要求和可用性，政策，知识，标准，意识，参与和投资有关。

Africa has relatively little biofuel development, except in South Africa, and more information on the few activities that are underway is urgently needed.

在世界范围内，尤其是在非洲，决策者和研究人员需要：

• 更好地了解生物质生产如何影响粮食生产；和
• 确定适合生物燃料的原料，并研究最合适的生产和加工程序，环境影响以及生物燃料中国内，地区和国际贸易的潜力。beplay足球体育的微博

本文侧重于液体生物燃料 - 生物乙醇和生物柴油。在这两者中，生物乙醇目前是更大的行业。Of the estimated 130 million barrels of biofuels produced worldwide in 2004, 95 million barrels came from bioethanol.

Bioethanol

商业生物乙醇主要由甘蔗，甜菜和玉米产生。其他来源是甜茎高粱和木薯，以及来自农作物，木材加工和市政固体废物的草，树木和各种废物等纤维素材料。

Bioethanol can be blended with conventional fuels to at least 10 per cent (10 per cent ethanol: 90 per cent gasoline). Kenya used blends of 20 per cent alcohol in the 1990s without significant affecting engine performance. And if engines are modified, a much higher percentage of bioethanol can be used.

In 2003, global production was double the level of a decade earlier, and from 2000 to 2005, production increased from 4.6 billion to 12.2 billion gallons. Brazil and the United States are world leaders in using ethanol.

Biodiesel

生物柴油是一种光到深黄色的液体，可生物降解，无毒，并且排放量明显少于基于石油的柴油。它实际上与水不混溶，具有高沸点和低蒸气压。生物柴油是由广泛的原料生产的，包括新鲜的大豆油，芥末籽油，废物植物油，棕榈油，菜籽油，葵花籽，大豆和贾特罗娃娃，铜，棕榈，棕榈，花生和棉花种子。

具有类似于石油柴油机的粘度，可以在柴油发动机（汽车，卡车，公共汽车，建筑设备），喷气发动机以及加热和发电系统中使用。It blends easily with petro-diesel and can be used as an additive to ultra-low sulphur diesel to increase lubricity.

Nearly all diesel-powered equipment can use blends of up to 20 per cent biodiesel, and many engines can use higher-level blends or even pure biodiesel with little or no modification. Most storage and distribution equipment take lower-level blends, but need special handling for higher-level blends.

Biodiesel use and production has been growing fast in the face of rising petroleum costs, and because of government tax subsidies. From a small base of 251 million gallons in 2000, production climbed to an estimated 790 million gallons in 2005.

Biofuel benefits

Biofuels offer many benefits. By reducing demand for petroleum, biofuels could make energy supply more secure. Their use would also reduce import bills for energy-deficient countries and offer improved balance of trade and balance of payments. All these developments would unfreeze scarce resources for other pressing needs。

温室气体，一氧化碳和颗粒物的排放均可大大减少。生物燃料还提高了车辆性能 - 生物柴油润滑油实际上延长了柴油发动机的寿命。

农业和农村发展有潜在的好处，包括新的就业机会和创收，这无疑将有助于实现千年发展目标。

此外,转向生物燃料将创造新的印第安纳州ustries and bring increased economic activity. It should also provide opportunities for carbon trading for many African countries。

生物燃料是可再生能源,而生物乙醇和biodiesel are clean burning. Importantly, they may be easier to commercialise than other alternatives because they can be stored and distributed using existing infrastructure.

Biofuels should have a significant role inclimate change policies, and this will certainly open up opportunities for biofuel development in developing countries, including Africa.

The situation in Africa

Worldwide, there have been major strides in producing and using biofuels, especially in Brazil, China, India and the United States. Yet there has been relatively little action in Africa, except for South Africa.

种植甘蔗的国家，主要是用于糖生产的国家，可以最少努力扩大其在生物乙醇生产中的活动，或者启动生物乙醇生产项目。其中包括安哥拉，刚果，刚果民主共和国，科特迪瓦，加纳，肯尼亚，马拉维，毛里求斯，毛里求斯，莫桑比克，尼日利亚，南非，斯威士兰，坦桑尼亚，坦桑尼亚，乌干达，赞比亚，赞比亚和津巴布韦。其中，肯尼亚，马拉维，毛里求斯，南非和津巴布韦都有一次或其他使用的生物乙醇作为运输或家用燃料。

潜在的增加乙醇生产from African sugar cane is high; it is simply a question of redefining strategies to factor in large-scale ethanol production for domestic use, and in the longer run, for export.

Several factors will determine the economics of moving to biofuels, including economies of scale and national policies for using ethanol in transport.

非洲的生物燃料活动集中在南非，那里已经准备了“白皮书”进行政府讨论。它提出了政府的行动和投资机会来促进生物燃料开发。南非公司Bio-Diesel One已安装了一家测试处理器，并表明将5％的生物柴油和95％的石油柴油融合在一起，可提高发动机性能，提供增强的润滑性和减少排放的功能。其他项目包括45,000公顷的托儿所，最初种植400万麻风病姜黄trees, the seeds of which will be used to produce biodiesel.

在肯尼亚，政府计划与日本合作生产生物燃料。

In central Ghana, Ghana Bio-Energy Ltd is constructing a plant for processing jatropha oil into biodiesel.

Malawi’s biodiesel association has contracts for a麻风病姜黄planting programme, while Uganda plans to be the first African country to operate a biodiesel plant, with an estimated investment of $30 million. The project is the brainchild of BIDCO Refineries Ltd, which operates a vegetable oil plant in Jinja.

陷阱要避免

Before biofuels become widespread, we must tackle several pressing issues. Biofuels still need research to identify suitable feedstocks, the most appropriate production and processing procedures, environmental impacts, potential land use conflict with food crops, and international trade opportunities.

Land requirements and availability

大规模生产生物燃料可能需要大量的土地。许多国家无力将土地从粮食生产中转移出来。

The ‘food versus fuel’ controversy is complex. Food and biomass require the same resources for production — land, water and agrochemicals. Food and fuel need not necessarily compete, particularly when there is careful planning for ecological conservation and sustainable production methods. But the real situation is less clear cut。

Worldwide, many studies on land availability give wide-ranging results, depending on their data sources and assumptions. And I am not aware of any such studies in individual African countries.

政策问题

Few countries have comprehensive biofuel policies, and where present, they are often driven largely by agricultural considerations. Policies are urgently required to:

• capture a wide spectrum of activities involving energy, environment, land use, land-use change, forestry, agriculture, water resources, transport; and
• 探讨生物燃料中广泛生产，使用和贸易的经济，社会和环境含义。beplay足球体育的微博

成功的政策制定和实施需要强大的法律，监管和机构框架。立法将通过创建管理项目和计划的行政框架和程序来指导生物燃料的监管，管理和开发。

Knowledge

知情和有效的决策需要可靠的数据和信息。当信息经过艰苦的收集，处理和分析时，对于生物燃料，运输，林业，能源，农业和环境部门的相关信息，最有用。beplay下载官网西西软件beplay足球体育的微博我们仍然需要开发准确的方法来估计和投射国内和全球市场的生物燃料需求。

Certainly, information on biofuel demand in African countries is inadequate. So is knowledge of biofuel resources and production, including the most appropriate feedstocks — all of which are critical in formulating a viable policy. These must be properly assessed. This could be done by developing a resource database and building the capacity to manage such a database.

标准

Another factor limiting biofuel development and trade is the lack of standards for the sector in Africa, and indeed in many countries elsewhere in the world. There are no international standards either, making it difficult for biofuels to reach the global market.

Awareness and participation

许多国家的经验表明，积极的政府参与对于制定生物燃料计划很重要。可以从德国，巴西和美国汲取有价值的课程。

Germany has become a leader in high-technology biofuel production, due to strong government commitment, viable policy and solid collaboration from the private sector. This positive environment has in turn unleashed innovation.

The United States, too, has been active for some time. Congress and a number of States have provided robust support for biofuel development.

巴西也是如此，特别是对于生物乙醇。生物燃料接近该国发展议程的顶部。

但是，尽管有这些课，但非洲国家仍需要考虑自己的情况，因为在情况可能有所不同的情况下，他人的经历可能不容易复制。

Investment

Large-scale biofuel development needs financial resources. Worldwide, interest in biofuels is certainly growing, which will hopefully spur investments.

许多发展中国家可以从国际金融机构以及区域和次区域发展银行获得资金。其他开发伙伴也准备参加可行的项目。

But a crucial first step will be government action to create a favourable environment for domestic, as well as international, investors. Initiatives must forge partnerships between the public and private sectors.

科学前景

全球，生物燃料的大规模生产正在迅速增长。预计在几个领域有进一步的研究和发展：

• Continuous fermentation and immobilised cells,
• Developing organisms with increased tolerance to alcohols, wider substrate ranges and higher temperatures; and
• lower energy requirements for recovery of alcohols.

In some regions with high agricultural productivity and no petroleum resources, carbohydrates are already converted into alcohols. This trend will probably become more widespread over the coming decades with technical progress.

Producing ethanol by breaking down cellulosic materials, such as switch-grass or fast-growing trees like hybrid poplars, with enzymes is promising. And work is also underway to genetically modify crops and plants for higher energy yields.

Big challenges in world energy

Energy’s critical importance in socio-economic development and environmental protection is now universally recognised. But the way energy is used currently is unsustainable. The challenge facing the international community is how best to move towards developing and using energy sustainably.

潜在的贡献再生能源来源和技术，尤其是在发展中国家，很高。许多因素阻碍了他们的发展，包括政策不足以及对现有技术和投资的访问有限。现在必须加快开发的速度，以帮助解决许多领域的原始能源不足的关键问题。

We must encourage massive investments in energy resource development and use, and put in place mechanisms to build capacity in the energy sector.

S. Arungu-Olende is secretary-general of the African Academy Of Sciences.

This article is adapted from a paper presented at a Kenya National Academy of Sciences workshop in Nairobi, Kenya, in June 2007.

本文是Spotlight在The biofuels revolution。