庇护所after disaster: Facts and figures

作者：莫妮卡·沃尔夫·默里（Monica Wolfe Murray）

如何用更少的方式建立更好的建筑？莫妮卡·沃尔夫·默里（Monica Wolfe Murray）探索了庇护所提供的新趋势和持久挑战。

庇护所是人类的基本需求。然而在2015年底，over 100 million people remain homeless, while almost 1-in-4 people on the planet — more than 1.6 billion — live in inadequate informal settlements that are unsafe, overcrowded and lack basic services such as water and sanitation.

确保足够的庇护所是一个复杂的过程：冗长，昂贵且不完全可预测。充其量是多种因素 - 社会，经济，环境和文化 - 共同努力将“庇护所”变成“家庭”，而创建“beplay足球体育的微博家庭”的大部分过程仍然超出了个人或社区的力量之外。

灾难为发展中国家已经巨大而长期的住房短缺增加了巨大的紧急庇护所要求（方框1）。但是，灾难后的计划和重建也是一个巨大的机会：不仅要建造更安全的房屋，而且更重要，更强大，更具弹性的社区。本文重点介绍了在提供灾难后提供庇护所的一些特征，考验和成就，这些灾难可以提供灵感，课程和工具，以确保所有需要这些人的安全房屋。

Alarming trends

The vast global mission of securing shelter is unfolding against an alarming background — a ‘perfect storm’ driven by converging and escalating challenges.

The world’s population is急剧增加，在资源贫乏的国家中的增长最快。[1]确保足够的房屋增加数百万美元的挑战是惊人的。UN-HABITAT估计，到2030年，额外的30亿人将需要住房。[2]十年前，它计算出来的目标需要每天建造96,150座房屋（或每小时4,000个房屋）。[2,3]这些惊人的数字现在必须更高。

全人类的一半以上生活在城市地区。在发展中国家，猖ramp的城市化转化为新兴的贫民窟和痛苦。在一个世纪的城市中，计划者和建筑商的使命是为城市移民和年轻人提供住房，基础设施和收入机会。

然后是气候变化。它的影响越来越强烈和频繁：极端天气正迅速成为新规范。破坏性的与气候相关的事件在资源贫乏的国家中造成更高的损失，那里的人们更有可能居住在不安全的结构和危险地点，而没有任何储蓄，保险或保证的收入。他们很难取代失落的房屋并在灾难发生后重新站起来。发展中国家的冲突和灾难对加深和永久贫困以及侵蚀社区的韧性产生了阴险的影响。在贫困地区，灾难夺走了更多的生命，消灭资产并削弱人们的能力和康复的信心。援助资金正在逐渐减少，就像救济和恢复需求正在增长一样。显然，在未来几年中，使用更少的资源必须实现更多。
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庇护所after the storm

目的是不仅要生产更多的房屋，而且还可以安全，负担得起的房屋 - 也可以迅速建造且易于复制，扩展和维护，并由需要房屋的人进行扩展和维护。尽管每个人道主义重建计划都是独一无二的，但在灾难后建造庇护所以及该部门如何随着时间的流逝而有一些趋势。表1总结了庇护所恢复的选择和方案，概述了灾难后援助机构和受影响社区往往会做什么。它们基于案例研究，从业人员的证词以及作者在庇护所重建计划中的专业知识。不可避免地，表明趋势的普遍性，因此值得注意的是，随着时间的推移，洞察力和经验加深了策略和计划正在发生变化（当前趋势将在本文稍后讨论）。

表1：灾难后庇护 - 两种观点

高科技与传统

It is clear that rebuilding after a disaster is a complex task. New houses need to meet许多标准在将它们视为安全且非常适合所有者需求之前（方框2）。[4]

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方框2。

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Humanitarian workers have explored the prospect of innovation in approach, building design, materials or technology for shelter construction that meets these requirements. But is technological innovation the key to securing adequate shelter for the billions of people who need it, and can it support them on the journey out of poverty and extreme vulnerability?
“创新”这个词可以涵盖范围广泛的我aning: anything from a clay-and-lime building block to a 3D printed house can be described as ‘innovative’. In the shelter sector, design and technology innovations are pulling practitioners in opposite directions: a return to the vernacular on the one hand, and new designs, materials and technologies on the other.

Return to the vernacular

Increasingly, humanitarian workers are looking to traditional house designs and building techniques to inspire the type of simple, low-cost innovation that would have the largest impact. This approach has considerable advantages. Vernacular construction is affordable, culturally appropriate, easily replicable, environmentally friendly and well-suited to different climates (box 3). It often uses natural, sustainable materials sourced locally, and it can be adapted and expanded incrementally, to fit the owners’ needs.

方框3：Pakistan reconstruction after the floods, 2010-2014[5]

2010年，季风为印度河谷沿岸的庞大农业土地带来了洪水和破坏。200万栋房屋被摧毁。重建始于传统计划 - 生产标准的实体房屋 - 但很快就转向了传统材料和白话设计以提高效率和影响。 Several small changes were made to traditional house designs: earthen walls were stabilised and strengthened with lime — a cheap, local material that massively improves water-resistance and reduces the environmental impact of the building process; wider roofs were built, with protruding eaves to protect the walls from the rain; the floor level was raised by building a ‘toe’ from earth and lime — which offered protection from stagnating water. 尽可能使用当地建筑材料：地球，竹子，石灰，木材，茅草和稻草。 Using conventional methods would have perhaps allowed aid agencies to house 35,000 families. By using vernacular designs and technologies instead, they were able to assist over 107,000 families and the cost of rebuilding one house fell from £750 to £200-250 (approximately US$1,160 to US$300-400). Overall, providing housing to 107,000 families using conventional reconstruction protocols would have cost US$77 million more and released an additional100,000吨二氧化碳进入气氛。

从早期的建筑年龄中汲取灵感也可以为不可持续的材料和方法提供可行的替代方案。一个这样的例子是在非洲的半干旱地区看到的，那里的木材密集型建筑风格消耗了森林，并且越来越昂贵。上埃及的古老建筑技术 -努比亚金库— has inspired durable houses built with local, natural materials such as mud bricks and earth mortar at much lower costs. The method is used in six countries and continues to spread across the continent.

新设计和技术

At the other end of the spectrum, housing experts and businesses propose new designs, construction materials and technologies to respond to shelter crises in resource-poor countries.

The range of ideas is vast, with some bold solutions offered to meet urgent or long-term needs. Abeer Seikaly’saward-winning tent design, for example, uses durable, cutting-edge materials in a traditional weaving pattern to produce an emergency shelter that is weatherproof and solar-powered.扁平包装的过渡庇护所are an example of lightweight housing units that are modular, and easy to transport and assemble. And a growing number of companies are beginning to showcase 3D printed permanent houses which, they maintain, make the task of reconstruction after disasters much easier. But this hypothesis remains untested in a humanitarian scenario (see box 4).

These solutions are undoubtedly ingenious in addressing one or more of the reconstruction challenges detailed in box 1, but it is often the criteria they don’t meet that determine their fate.

Are they safe? Can these buildings be maintained, replicated or expanded by their owners? Are they affordable? How quickly and cheaply can they be transported and assembled? People funding and implementing humanitarian responses will ask all these questions, and more, before a new design can graduate from the drawing board to be tested and finally applied at scale in a crisis situation.

经验还表明，社区将拒绝不适合其文化，需求和愿望的设计。援助工人正当质疑对受灾难影响的人们测试新住房发明的道德规范，这些人在此过程中没有发言权。

Box 4:3D Printing: Potential and pitfalls

很难忽略potential of 3D printing在人道主义行动的各个部门中 - 从医疗保健到提供水，卫生和庇护所。想象一场灾难后的全部庇护所能够包括将3D打印机运送到受影响地区并上班吗？ 3D printers could produce a permanent house in one day, using natural, local materials such as earth or sand. The designs can be tailored to suit needs and cultural criteria. It is impossible to estimate the costs of the technology itself, but some believe funds could be saved by bypassing costly transitional stages of shelter assistance. 不利的一面是，3D打印的房屋没有耐久性或安全性的记录，并且在对没有选择的人进行测试方面存在道德问题。人们永远无法复制，扩展或维护它们。 And, most significantly, providing such shelters needs less community participation or contribution than other approaches. It is, once again, a product, rather than a community-building process.

However exciting, beautiful or promising they are, most of the ideas and prototypes proposed by affluent countries are rejected by shelter practitioners working on real life situations in the developing world. By contrast, more modest approaches continue to gain ground and popularity. These solutions are often small and simple, low tech and low-cost; make vast improvements to the quality of housing; are applicable widely and by anyone; and impose the lightest possible burden on the environment.

Building change

除了创新之外，提供庇护所的基本问题和挑战与五十年前相同。学习并不容易转移和复制，因为每种情况都有自己的上下文。为了取得成功，每个重建或建筑计划都需要与经济，政治，社会和环境现实的复杂且不断变化的背景产生共鸣。beplay足球体育的微博

These multifaceted and unpredictable settings make it challenging for aid or development agencies to gather evidence, compare, learn or standardise — the wheel needs to be reinvented, to a degree, each time. Still, although there is no blueprint that fits each context, there are common principles and parameters to guide shelter planning and design.

Over the past decade, programmes have begun to place the people who need shelter at the helm. The notion that people affected by disasters, conflicts, urban hardship and poverty can rebuild their own homes is not new. But perhaps it is only now that shelter organisations are allowing it to inform their strategy. They acknowledge that everyone has the right to a home that is safe and culturally appropriate, a home that meets their needs and aspirations. Once this basic premise is established and agreed by all, some guiding principles become amply clear.

First, shelter is a complex process, not a humanitarian product for distribution. Donor and accountability requirements make it all too easy to treat shelter as a product to be ‘delivered to beneficiaries’. But this top-down, donor-driven, paternalistic approach has often excluded prospective house-owners from every decision, as well as the building process itself. This can lead to tensions or conflict. After the Indian Ocean tsunami for example, while commercial contractors landed on islands in the Maldives to build standard houses designed by government engineers, inhabitants could only observe, argue and complain about every detail and aspect of ‘their’ reconstruction. This approach is gradually changing. Instead of talking about ‘housing units delivered’,shelter reports now refer to ‘people assisted’。[6]

其次，建筑庇护所是“人民拥有的过程”。如果社区成员可以决定并领导重建，灾难后的恢复更快，更成功。人道主义工人和捐助者正在学习对“软”方法的重量相同，包括告知，参与，培训和授权社区重建自己的房屋。尼泊尔的地震后重建策略（现金赠款和培训）是这种方法的最新例子。

Third, people want ‘homes’, not ‘housing units’. Humanitarian workers increasingly act from an understanding that a ‘shelter’ becomes a home only when several essential needs are met: livelihoods, infrastructure, essential services and legal status, economic resilience and environmental sustainability. In rural Pakistan, for example, after three years of severe flooding (2010-2012), house reconstruction efforts by the United Kingdom’s Department for International Development also supported agriculture, tree planting, kitchen gardens, water and sanitation, rebuilding infrastructure and disaster risk reduction measures. [5]

Immediately after the floods, NGOs distributed kits for emergency shelter, consisting mainly of bamboo poles and tarpaulin. These materials were then reused to build permanent houses. Community-based organisations managed cash grants to rebuild their homes in a process that increased people’s confidence in their own resources, skills and resilience.

最后，建筑环境会影响人们对自然危害的脆beplay足球体育的微博弱性。危害和灾难之间存在根本的区别：危害是不可预测的自然威胁 - 地震，洪水，火山喷发；这是发展决策，例如在哪里以及如何建造可以将这些未实现的威胁变成灾难的房屋。建筑物本身定义了居民的脆弱性以及他们面临的风险。

This underlines the opportunity and responsibility to rebuild safer houses after disasters. The first task is to identify measures that make construction better and safer, and to get these measures adopted among the community’s building practices. For example, after Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines,八项基本措施were promoted to increase the safety and resistance of new buildings. The very simple approach of publicising key messages can have a vast impact on people’s awareness and building techniques.

The future of shelter

People will always find ways and resources to secure shelter, however unsafe and inadequate, and whether in dense urban environments or amid the utter devastation of disasters. And whatever the context, the biggest challenges remain the same: rebuilding with an understanding of risk and environmental impact, and seeing housing as a part of a community’s resilience, along with other components such as livelihoods, health and culture. Securing land tenure and access to financing are additional, and crucial, challenges.

人道主义部门在灾难后使用的一些庇护所解决方案现在激发并告知人们解决城市地区长期长期住房短缺的人们。特定的城市现实，例如高密度和复杂的基础设施需求，使庇护所模型无法正常工作，但是以人为本的庇护所方法也可以适用于城市居民。

For example,Arif Hasan及其团队在卡拉奇贫民窟的研究已经表明，搬迁到公寓楼（计划者的解决方案）通常会导致更多的贫困和孤立。取而代之的是，计划低收入城市定居点，这些定居点可以由占领者（以所有者为主导的方法）逐步扩展，这有助于经济和社会进步。[7]

Meanwhile, in cities, architectural firms continue to propose highly technical alternatives to urban slum housing, such as futuristic-looking使用可回收的运输容器的摩天大楼作为提供一种过渡庇护所的基础，以取代贫民窟的外壳。但是这些适合人们的需求，生活方式或生计吗？很可能不是：它们的建设成本高昂，完全不在潜在居民的控制或文化之外。

为需要他们的数十亿人提供房屋仍然是一个复杂而压倒性的挑战。但是，在灾难，移民或经济困难之后，数十年来在城市和农村地区的援助表明，最大的影响不是来自技术，而是涉及社区参与自己的房屋。真正的进步往往来自每个人都可以使用的小小的，简单的改进，重返传统和自然，照顾安全和环境，最重要的是，使家庭参与创造房屋和栖息地。beplay足球体育的微博

莫妮卡·沃尔夫·默里is a writer and editor, and formerly programme design and implementation advisor at UN-Habitat. She can be contacted atemwolfem@gmail.com

定义
Adaptation (to climate change)	The ways that natural and human systems adjust to changing climatic factors in order to mitigate harmful impacts or exploit opportunities to thrive and develop.
Build Back Better/Build Back Safer	An approach to shelter reconstruction that aims to reduce vulnerability to natural hazards and improve living conditions, but also to promote a more effective rebuilding process. The term also describes solutions and details incorporated into house design and building technologies for making houses more resistant to natural disasters.
Building code	A set of regulations and standards to control aspects of the design, construction, materials, alteration and occupancy of housing. The goal is to ensure they are safe by, for example, making them resistant to collapse, damage and fire.
Climate change	除了自然变异性以及直接或间接与人类活动相关外，地球气候的变化也发生了变化。该术语描述了数十年或更长的变化，并改变了全球气氛的组成。
建筑技术	用于架设或修理房屋的建筑材料，技术和其他方法的选择。
Disaster	这是一个不可预见的，常常突然的事件，与脆弱性相结合，严重破坏社区或社会的运作方式，超出了其使用自己的资源的能力。它涉及生命的丧失以及对人类健康的其他影响，以及对财产和其他资产的损害，服务损失，社会和经济破坏以及环境退化。beplay足球体育的微博
Disaster risk reduction (DRR)	The theory and practice of reducing potential disaster losses by systematically analysing causal factors and corresponding measures that could mitigate the risk, such as wise environmental management and improved preparedness.
Displacement	人们远离家园的强行或自愿运动。那些留在该国边界内的人被称为内部流离失所者，逃离边界外的人被称为难民。流离失所可能是由灾难，冲突，侵犯人权行为或其他创伤事件引起的。
冒险	一个描述对人，环境和经济的潜在威胁的术语，并不总是可以预见的。beplay足球体育的微博危害可以是气候，地质，水文或生物学。
住房	建筑物内外的直接物理环境，家庭和家庭居住并作为beplay足球体育的微博庇护所。
增量庇护所/增量住房	一个过程从非正式定居点增长的方式中汲取灵感并支持 - 从单室“核心”庇护所开始，然后根据需要以及在可用资源何时添加额外的单位和功能。作为一种低成本解决方案，它得到了越来越多的支持，尤其是在城市地区。
基础设施	提供公共服务的系统和网络，例如水，卫生，能源，公用事业和运输。
Land tenure	一个描述土地拥有的法律制度的术语，其中一个人说持有土地。
生计	确保生存和福祉的资源和活动的结合。资源包括个人技能（人力资本），土地（自然资本），储蓄（金融资本）和设备（物理资本），以及正式的支持小组和非正式网络（社会资本）。
非政府组织（非政府组织）	Not-for-profit entities that are independent from a government or state. They are normally devoted to humanitarian and human rights causes. Local and international NGOs play an important role after disasters: they coordinate activities, provide services and take measures related to emergency relief and longer-term recovery.
重建	在灾难中销毁或损害的物理结构，服务和基础设施的恢复和改进。该术语还包括恢复受灾社区的设施，生计和生活条件，以及减少灾难风险的努力。重建有不同的方法。它可能是由有或没有外部协助的有或没有外部帮助的房主和社区重建的驱动的，也可能是由将重建的机构赋予的，将重建与社区和房主很少或没有参与的私人公司签约。
恢复	灾难后采取的措施以恢复或改善污点前的生活条件，并进行调整以减少未来的灾害风险。该术语不仅包括身体重建，还包括恢复生计，经济，社会和文化生活。
解脱或 response	在灾难期间或在灾难后立即提供紧急援助，以挽救生命，减少健康影响并满足受影响者的基本需求。根据情况，这种类型的干预可以简短或持久。
Resilience	的能力系统,社区或社会resist, absorb, adapt to and recover from the stresses of a disaster. Resilience depends on the degree to which the system has the resources, social capital and organisational capacity needed to recover from any type of shock.
减少灾害风险的仙台框架	The agreed global framework of voluntary actions to reduce disaster risks from 2015-30. It was adopted in March at the Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Sendai, Japan.
庇护所	一个可居住的，有覆盖的居住空间，为居住在其中的人们提供隐私和尊严，为居住的人提供私密和尊严。beplay足球体育的微博灾难后使用的是，该术语的定义更广泛，并涵盖了不再可以进入房屋的人们的身体保护需求。紧急选择（例如帐篷或含有防水油布或塑料板和极点）的紧急选择，如紧急选择。使用更具抵抗力但轻巧的短期庇护所，例如预制住房单元（称为“过渡性庇护所”），直到恢复或重建耐用，永久性结构为止。
庇护所	一种有助于改善政府和其他人在庇护所部门工作的机制，以便需要帮助的人更快地获得帮助并获得正确的支持。IFRC在自然灾害中召集了集群，而难民署在冲突情况下引发。
Sphere standards	Sphere手册的缩写流行术语是一套被广泛接受的原则和最低标准，可提供足够的人道主义反应。它包括庇护所重建的规划，建设和环境影响指南。beplay足球体育的微博
Vernacular architecture	一个描述使用传统技术和当地建筑材料的建筑物的术语。它反映了产生这些建筑物的文化的特定需求，价值观，环境环境，经济和生活方式。beplay足球体育的微博随着时间的推移，资源和环境的变化，它们可能会随着时间的推移而适应或开发。
Vulnerability	社区，系统或资产的特征和情况，使其容易受到危害的破坏性影响。脆弱性在社区内和随着时间的流逝而有所不同。与住所和灾难有关的脆弱性存在许多方面 - 例如，建筑物的设计和建造不良，缺乏公共信息和意识以及对风险和准备措施的官方认识有限。

这篇文章是我们关于庇护危机的关注点的一部分：暴风雨后的重建。